Vaccines, Serums, & Antibiotics

Following World War II, the deadliest conflict in history, the World Health Organization (WHO) was formally founded on April 7, 1948. Its vision aimed for universal health, advocating that the highest standards of care should be accessible to everyone.

Cancer Therapy

In 1890, American surgeon William Coley was profoundly moved by treating a young woman with a malignant hand tumor. Faced with the absence of effective therapies, he resorted to amputating her forearm, but she succumbed within weeks as the cancer had already metastasized. Driven to explore alternative treatments, Coley delved into hospital records and uncovered an intriguing case. A patient treated for a neck tumor years earlier had survived a severe post-operative skin infection—a common outcome before the advent of antibiotics. Upon locating the patient, Coley discovered an absence of any evidence of cancer. Encountering similar cases, he erroneously theorized that bacterial infections could release toxins attacking malignant tissue.

In 1891, Coley injected live Streptococcus bacteria into a terminally ill patient, leading to a full recovery and an eight-year extension of life. Persisting in his experiments, Coley transitioned from live to dead bacteria after some patients succumbed to the infections he induced. Over three decades, he treated over 1,000 individuals, achieving a substantial rate of lasting remissions. Coley uncovered a correlation between administering “Coley’s toxins” and a reduction in tumor size. Despite his conviction, the medical establishment, including the American Cancer Society, questioned his methods, dubbing them an “alleged remedy” in 1894. The concurrent discovery of radiation therapy overshadowed Coley’s approach, preventing it from becoming a standard cancer treatment. Nevertheless, Coley’s work left a lasting impact. Modern cancer research demonstrates that certain tumors respond to heightened immunity. As the body’s immune system targets invasive bacteria, it can also combat tumors. This insight foreshadowed cancer immunotherapy, implemented in the late 1990s, echoing the pioneering spirit of Coley’s endeavors.

Radiation Therapy

Discovered in 1895, X-rays were first used for cancer treatment in 1896 by American surgeon Emil Grubbe. Early radiation therapy targeted skin cancers, with Swedish physicist Thor Stenbeck pioneering daily doses to cure a skin cancer in 1900. However, the unrefined approach harmed healthy cells, and side effects often outweighed benefits. Radiation therapy techniques evolved in the 20th century. Modern methods include external delivery with beams directed at tumors or internal delivery through implanted or injected sources. Conformal radiation therapy (CRT) utilizes 3D imaging for precise tumor mapping, while proton beam therapy, using charged particles called protons, minimizes damage to surrounding tissues. Early radiation had drawbacks, but advancements have refined its efficacy and reduced side effects.

Chemotherapy

In the early 1940s, pharmacologists Louis Goodman and Alfred Gilman discovered the cytotoxic properties of nitrogen mustard, a chemical warfare agent. Administered to terminally ill blood cancer patients, it temporarily eliminated cancerous lymphocytes, marking a breakthrough in cancer treatment and the beginning of the chemotherapy era. In the late 1940s, pathologist Sidney Farber, recognizing cancer cells’ dependence on folic acid, designed synthetic compounds, aminopterin and later methotrexate, analogues of folic acid. Aminopterin successfully halted DNA synthesis in cancer cells in 1947, a crucial step towards treating childhood leukemia. While aminopterin was abandoned, methotrexate became a chemotherapy staple. In the 1950s, chemotherapy was considered experimental, with surgery and radiation as primary treatments. Oncologist Jane Wright established chemotherapy as a mainstream cancer treatment, demonstrating its effectiveness in destroying solid tumors. Leading research in personalized therapy, she experimented with methotrexate treatments tailored to individual patients’ symptoms, contributing to the evolution of chemotherapy.

Metastatic Cancer

While surgery and radiotherapy target specific areas, chemotherapy delivers agents throughout the body, making it effective for metastatic cancer. In the early 1950s, metastatic cancers lacked effective treatments. Methotrexate, successful against leukemia, was unproven against solid tumors.

In 1956, American researchers Min Li and Roy Hertz made groundbreaking discoveries. Li demonstrated methotrexate’s efficacy against metastatic melanomas, and Hertz used it to cure metastatic choriocarcinoma. These breakthroughs dramatically shifted outcomes—choriocarcinoma, once nearly always fatal, saw an 80% cure rate by 1962. In 1965, James Holland, Emil Frei, and Emil Freireich introduced combination chemotherapy, applying multiple drugs to reduce resistance. This approach, using a cocktail of up to four drugs, including methotrexate, successfully treated previously deemed incurable cases of acute lymphocytic leukemia and Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Combination chemotherapy has since become the standard.

Vaccination

In 1976, German virologist Harald zur Hausen suggested a viral link to cervical cancer, leading to the identification of human papillomavirus (HPV) as the culprit in the late 1980s. Australian immunologist Ian Frazer and Chinese virologist Jian Zhou developed the HPV vaccine, available since 2006, providing protection against cervical, anal, mouth, and throat cancers.

In the early 21st century, a comprehensive approach involving radiotherapy, surgery, chemotherapy, and vaccination significantly increased survival rates, notably for breast, lung, bowel, and prostate cancers. In the US, breast cancer death rates dropped by 39% (1989–2015), achieving 90% and 85% five-year survival rates in the US and Western Europe, respectively. Despite progress, pancreatic, liver, and certain lung cancers maintain low survival rates. In 2015, five-year survival for pancreatic cancer was below 15%. Treatment typically includes surgery, followed by daily radiotherapy and extended combination chemotherapy.

Immunology

Cancer immunotherapy, reminiscent of William Coley’s 19th-century bacterial injections, now focuses on educating and enhancing our body’s immune system to identify and fight against cancer cells. In 1975, biochemists César Milstein and Georges Köhler pioneered the use of monoclonal antibodies to target cancer cells, a technique widely employed in cancer diagnosis and treatment.

Research in the early 21st century emphasizes T-cells, specifically killer T-cells, which naturally seek and destroy defective cells. James P. Allison and Tasuku Honjo discovered the chemical mechanism enabling T-cells to recognize hostile cells, opening the door to rearming T-cells against cancer. CAR (chimeric antigen receptor) T-cells, developed in 2002, are now effectively combating certain leukemia and lymphoma cancers. This therapy involves modifying T-cell receptors to recognize cancer-specific proteins before reintroducing them into the patient’s bloodstream. While still in early stages, this innovative approach holds significant potential for advancing cancer therapy.

X-Rays

In December 1895, physicist Wilhelm Röntgen unveiled his groundbreaking discovery of X-rays, presenting the world with a new realm of possibilities. His pioneering work, including the iconic image of his wife’s hand, marked the advent of clinical diagnostic imaging. Röntgen’s revolutionary contributions earned him the inaugural Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901. X-rays, a form of imperceptible electromagnetic radiation, traverse the body with varying absorption rates in different tissues. Employing a device on the opposite side, these discrepancies are captured and transformed into photographic images. This imaging technique plays a crucial role in diagnosing conditions like bone fractures, dental issues, scoliosis, and bone tumors.

Early Risks

During the nascent days of X-rays, the hazards of radiation were not fully comprehended. Researchers and physicians experienced burns, hair loss, and, tragically, fatalities. Presently, advancements ensure minimal exposure to low radiation levels, rendering X-ray scans virtually risk-free for the majority. The mid-1970s witnessed the integration of computed tomography (CT) in hospitals, leveraging X-rays to generate 3D images by encircling the body with a rotating X-ray source and detector.

Virology

In the vast virosphere, comprising trillions of entities, approximately 220 viruses pose a threat to humans, distinct for their diminutive size—up to a thousand times smaller than bacteria. Encased in a protein coat, these entities harbor either DNA or RNA. Viruses, inert on their own, come to life when infiltrating other organisms, relying on the commandeering of host cells for replication.

Isolated From Tobacco Sap

Dutch microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck etched the term “virus” into the scientific lexicon during his 1898 exploration of tobacco mosaic infection. Building upon the groundwork of Russian botanist Dmitri Ivanovsky in 1892, who had observed infectious sap after filtration, Beijerinck’s 1897 experiments with a secondary gelatin filter led him to a crucial distinction. Although the sap remained infectious, it defied cultivation and exclusively spread through leaf injection. This liquid pathogen, distinct from known microbes, was dubbed “virus,” signifying a “poisonous fluid” in Latin. The revelation of viruses causing human diseases dawned with the discovery of the yellow fever virus in 1901. A pivotal shift occurred in 1929 when US scientist Francis Holmes demonstrated that viruses were discrete particles rather than mere fluids. The crystallization of the tobacco mosaic virus from infected leaves by virologist Wendell Stanley in 1935 marked a milestone in comprehending the nature of viruses.

Psychoanalysis

In the nascent era of the 1870s, the term “psychology,” derived from the Greek “psychologia,” meaning the “study of the soul,” took its initial steps. Vienna witnessed the academic journey of Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud, a pivotal figure in this evolving discipline. While notable European physicians like Wilhelm Wundt in Germany delved into experimental psychology, probing the intricacies of the senses and nerves to unravel the brain’s information processing, Freud charted a distinct course. His focus shifted towards exploring the non-physical origins of mental disorders, a domain he later termed psychoanalysis. A significant influence in Freud’s formative years was French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot. Charcot’s innovative use of hypnosis in treating the condition then labeled as hysteria left an indelible mark. In 1885, Freud embarked on a 19-week sojourn in Paris, working closely under Charcot’s guidance. This experience planted the seeds of the revolutionary idea that the roots of mental disorders resided in the mind—the realm of thought and consciousness—rather than in the physical confines of the brain.

Delving Into Dreams

Following the passing of his father in 1896, Sigmund Freud embarked on an introspective odyssey fueled by a series of disconcerting dreams. Amidst his grief, he meticulously documented and scrutinized these dreams, initiating a profound process of self-analysis. In one perplexing dream, Freud found himself confronted with a hospital bill for an individual present in the family home decades before his birth. The dream unfolded with his father’s ghost confessing to a drunken episode and subsequent detention. Freud, interpreting the dream, posited that it unveiled concealed aspects of his father’s past—perhaps involving suppressed vices or even undisclosed trauma like sexual abuse.

Complicated by a tumultuous relationship with his father, Freud confided in German physician Wilhelm Fliess. In these revelations, Freud acknowledged a complex mix of jealousy toward his father and affection for his mother, coining the term “Oedipus complex” to encapsulate this intricate emotional interplay, drawing inspiration from the Greek myth of Oedipus. In “The Interpretation of Dreams” published in 1899, Freud unveiled his theory. He proposed that dreams served as a conduit for the expression and fulfillment of repressed emotions, often tinged with a sexual nature. These dreams, according to Freud, provided an outlet for primordial emotions too potent and distressing for the conscious mind to endure. His conviction deepened, asserting that unresolved childhood traumas underlay adult mental health struggles, their memories relegated to the recesses of the unconscious In Freud’s paradigm, the conscious, unconscious, ego, and superego formed a metaphorical mental iceberg. The id, harboring repressed thoughts and potential catalysts for mental disorders, dwelled solely in the unconscious. Freud’s therapeutic pursuit lay in navigating the unconscious, deeming dreams as powerful vessels to access this enigmatic realm, where understanding and resolution could pave the way to psychological healing.

Id, Ego, & Superego

In the 1920s, Sigmund Freud expanded his conceptualization of the human mind, introducing the id, ego, and superego as integral components of the intricate tapestry of personality. Rooted in childhood development, these elements coalesce to shape the human psyche. Within the metaphorical iceberg of the mind, the id emerges as the primal, instinctive force submerged in the unconscious. It comprises inherited traits, profound fears, and both aggressive and sexual impulses. While steering much of mental activity, the id operates surreptitiously, hidden from the conscious mind. Freudian slips—unintentional expressions or behaviors—serve as inadvertent glimpses into its concealed influences. The ego, a pivotal construct in Freud’s framework, embodies the self’s interaction with the external world. Positioned across the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious realms, the ego acts as a mediator, navigating conflicts within the inner recesses of the mind. Its developmental roots extend into infancy.

Concurrently maturing during early childhood, the superego, spanning all three mental levels, manifests as the moral compass, regulating impulses and enforcing ethical standards. Freud’s proposition posits an inherent tension among these three elements, instigating internal conflicts. When clashes arise between the id and superego, the ego intervenes as a mediator. In such instances, defense mechanisms—such as denial and repression—are deployed by the ego to cope with the discord. This intricate interplay among the id, ego, and superego, set against the backdrop of Freud’s psychological landscape, delineates the ongoing saga of inner conflict and resolution within the human psyche.

Modified But Still Potent

Throughout his lifetime, Sigmund Freud held a commanding presence in psychiatry, rightfully earning the title of the father of psychoanalysis. Despite this acclaim, Freud faced detractors, and several of his theories are now viewed as outdated. Criticisms cite the lack of scientific grounding in his ideas, the prolonged and costly nature of psychoanalysis, and the potential for an unhealthy power imbalance between therapist and patient. Freud himself acknowledged challenges in the therapeutic relationship, notably the “transference phenomenon,” where patients project feelings about their parents onto the therapist. Over time, Freud’s theories underwent modifications, leading to the emergence of over 20 distinct schools of thought within contemporary psychoanalysis. These are predominantly taught in specialized institutes separate from mainstream medical disciplines, a point of contention for critics who emphasize the importance of replicable scientific evidence.

Addressing this criticism, the field of neuropsychoanalysis has emerged, marrying brain imaging with psychoanalytic principles. However, acceptance of this integration remains a point of contention among psychiatrists. Despite a decline in its practice, psychoanalysis continues to captivate clinical psychologists, and Freud’s enduring legacy persists in the emphasis on patients’ life histories and the value placed on attentive listening to patients.

Hormones & Endocrinology

Endocrinology, a medical branch dedicated to hormones – the body’s chemical messengers, took root in 1902 with a groundbreaking experiment by British physiologists Ernest Starling and William Bayliss at University College London (UCL). Until then, the prevailing belief was that organs communicated solely through electrical signals conducted by nerves. Starling and Bayliss’s experiment proved definitively that chemical messengers played a crucial role, sparking the emergence of endocrinology.

Early Indications

Early hints of hormonal existence surfaced in 19th-century experiments. Claude Bernard’s 1848 studies on liver function introduced the concept of “internal secretion,” revealing organs’ ability to produce and release substances directly into the bloodstream. In 1849, German physiologist Arnold Berthold’s experiments with castrated chickens demonstrated that transplanting testes triggered male sexual development, challenging the notion that the nervous system exclusively controlled such processes.

Despite Berthold’s findings, the predominant belief in the sole reliance on nerves for bodily communication persisted. In 1889, French neurologist Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard, at 72 years old, injected himself with a concoction derived from the testicles of animals. Remarkably, he experienced enhanced strength, stamina, and concentration, providing early indications of the systemic influence of hormones.

Early Indications

Early hints of hormonal existence surfaced in 19th-century experiments. Claude Bernard’s 1848 studies on liver function introduced the concept of “internal secretion,” revealing organs’ ability to produce and release substances directly into the bloodstream. In 1849, German physiologist Arnold Berthold’s experiments with castrated chickens demonstrated that transplanting testes triggered male sexual development, challenging the notion that the nervous system exclusively controlled such processes.

Despite Berthold’s findings, the predominant belief in the sole reliance on nerves for bodily communication persisted. In 1889, French neurologist Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard, at 72 years old, injected himself with a concoction derived from the testicles of animals. Remarkably, he experienced enhanced strength, stamina, and concentration, providing early indications of the systemic influence of hormones.

The first hormone

In a groundbreaking 1902 experiment at the Royal College of Physicians, Ernest Starling and William Bayliss coined the term “hormone” from the Greek word ormao (“to excite or arouse”). They identified the first hormone, “secretin,” revealing its release from the small intestine into the bloodstream when gastric acid fluid entered from the stomach. This hormone then prompted the pancreas to release bicarbonate, neutralizing the acid fluid.

This discovery led to the identification of numerous hormones, including insulin by Frederick Banting and John Macleod in 1921. Adolf Butenandt and Edward Doisy independently identified estrogen in 1929, followed by progesterone in 1934, and testosterone and estradiol in 1935. Over 50 human hormones have been identified to date. Starling and Bayliss’s realization that secretin from one species stimulated another’s pancreas hinted at potential therapies for previously untreatable endocrine disorders. Eli Lilly introduced Iletin, the first commercially available insulin for diabetes treatment, just two years after Banting and Macleod’s discovery. By the mid-1930s, oral and injectable estrogens were also accessible for managing menstrual irregularities and menopausal symptoms. High demand for expensive, limited hormone therapies from animal sources prompted researchers to explore large-scale biochemical synthesis. In 1926, Charles Harington achieved the first chemical synthesis of a hormone, thyroxine, enhancing the mass production of hormones like insulin. The addition of zinc in the 1930s extended insulin’s action to around 24 hours, marking a pivotal advancement in hormone therapy.

Modern Developments

The evolution of hormone synthesis has transformed medical possibilities. In 1960, the introduction of the contraceptive pill, featuring synthetic progesterone and estrogen, marked a pivotal moment, making manufactured hormone products widely accessible. Synthetic estrogen gained popularity in the 1960s for hormone replacement therapy (HRT), empowering women to combat menopausal symptoms.

By the late 1970s, biotechnological progress enabled the production of genetically engineered human hormones. Innovations in gene-splicing techniques allowed common bacteria, like Escherichia coli, to be genetically modified for laboratory hormone production, notably insulin.

While ongoing research expands our understanding of hormones, recent studies raise concerns about the safety of certain hormone treatments. Findings from 2002 linking HRT to increased breast cancer and stroke risks underscore the need for a meticulous balance between altering hormone levels and potential risks. Investigating the adverse effects of drugs on the delicate hormone balance remains a crucial focus of contemporary research.

Electrocardiography

In ancient times, physicians relied on listening to the body’s signals for detecting diseases, notably recognizing the pulse of the heart. René Laennec’s stethoscope, invented in 1816, marked a significant advancement in hearing the heartbeat. Taking a crucial leap forward in 1903, Dutch physiologist Willem Einthoven introduced the electrocardiograph, revolutionizing heart monitoring.

Electrocardiographs, through a process known as an electrocardiogram, capture the heartbeat pattern by detecting the heart’s varying electrical signals using electrodes placed on the body. The foundation for this innovation was laid in 1842 when Italian physicist Carlo Matteucci’s animal experiments revealed the presence of an electrical current accompanying each heartbeat. Subsequent decades witnessed scientific endeavors to devise methods for recording the human heart’s electrical activity, leading to the groundbreaking development of electrocardiography.

Electrocardiography

In ancient times, physicians relied on listening to the body’s signals for detecting diseases, notably recognizing the pulse of the heart. René Laennec’s stethoscope, invented in 1816, marked a significant advancement in hearing the heartbeat. Taking a crucial leap forward in 1903, Dutch physiologist Willem Einthoven introduced the electrocardiograph, revolutionizing heart monitoring.

Electrocardiographs, through a process known as an electrocardiogram, capture the heartbeat pattern by detecting the heart’s varying electrical signals using electrodes placed on the body. The foundation for this innovation was laid in 1842 when Italian physicist Carlo Matteucci’s animal experiments revealed the presence of an electrical current accompanying each heartbeat. Subsequent decades witnessed scientific endeavors to devise methods for recording the human heart’s electrical activity, leading to the groundbreaking development of electrocardiography.

Refining The Machines

In 1903, Willem Einthoven refined heart monitoring with a sensitive string galvanometer. This intricate device utilized a fine wire suspended between two electromagnets, capturing the heart’s electrical current. The resulting shadow movements were recorded on photographic paper, offering more precise readings compared to earlier models. Einthoven streamlined the process, reducing electrode points to three and establishing what became known as Einthoven’s triangle, incorporating readings from the left and right arm and left leg. While initial electrocardiographs were bulky, ongoing modifications led to more compact machines. Today’s portable devices enable digital heart monitoring over extended periods. Standard ECGs now employ 10 electrodes – six on the chest and one on each limb – providing 12 measurements (“leads”) that offer diverse insights into the heart’s activity.

The Nervous System

In 1904, Charles Scott Sherrington, a British neurophysiologist, unveiled groundbreaking revelations about the human nervous system. Published in 1906 in “The Integrative Action of the Nervous System,” Sherrington’s research addressed key questions, significantly impacting the advancement of brain surgery and treatment for neurological disorders. Sherrington introduced three pivotal concepts. Firstly, he dispelled the notion that muscles solely receive instructions from nerves originating in the spinal cord. He revealed that muscles also transmit information back to the brain, conveying details about muscle position and tone – a phenomenon termed proprioception. This reciprocal flow of information is crucial for controlling movement and posture.

Building on Descartes’ observation of reciprocal innervation in 1626, Sherrington’s studies in the 1890s elucidated the intricacies of this process. “Sherrington’s law” asserted that the activation of a muscle corresponds to the relaxation of its opposing muscle. For instance, when flexing the arm at the elbow, the bicep muscle activates (contracting), while the tricep muscle inhibits (relaxing to facilitate the movement). In 1897, Sherrington introduced the term “synapse” to describe the juncture where two nerve cells (neurons) meet. Despite the limitations of microscopes at the time, he theorized the existence of synapses. Sherrington proposed that reflexes, involuntary motor responses, involved more than simple impulse conduction along continuous nerve fibers. He outlined how neurons communicate through electric signals transmitted along thread-like axons, releasing neurotransmitters to neighboring cells across synapses.

Understanding The Disease

Advancements in comprehending brain structure and nervous system functionality provided scientists with novel avenues for investigating neurological and psychological disorders. In 1817, British surgeon James Parkinson documented symptoms observed in six individuals afflicted by “the shaking palsy,” later recognized as Parkinson’s disease. Despite inaccurately attributing the condition to lesions in the cervical spinal cord, Parkinson’s systematic and analytical approach marked a significant stride.

French clinical neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot, spanning the years 1868 to 1891, delved into the study of various diseases. Among them, he elucidated Parkinson’s disease and provided insights into multiple sclerosis (MS), a condition damaging the protective sheath of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord. Charcot’s observations, later termed Charcot’s triad, became integral to understanding MS. Additionally, Charcot’s contributions extended to modern psychiatry, notably through his utilization of hypnosis to explore hysteria symptoms while teaching at the Salpêtrière School in Paris.

Understanding The Disease

Advancements in comprehending brain structure and nervous system functionality provided scientists with novel avenues for investigating neurological and psychological disorders. In 1817, British surgeon James Parkinson documented symptoms observed in six individuals afflicted by “the shaking palsy,” later recognized as Parkinson’s disease. Despite inaccurately attributing the condition to lesions in the cervical spinal cord, Parkinson’s systematic and analytical approach marked a significant stride.

French clinical neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot, spanning the years 1868 to 1891, delved into the study of various diseases. Among them, he elucidated Parkinson’s disease and provided insights into multiple sclerosis (MS), a condition damaging the protective sheath of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord. Charcot’s observations, later termed Charcot’s triad, became integral to understanding MS. Additionally, Charcot’s contributions extended to modern psychiatry, notably through his utilization of hypnosis to explore hysteria symptoms while teaching at the Salpêtrière School in Paris.

later Advances

Throughout the 20th century, ongoing discoveries, largely built upon Sherrington’s groundbreaking insights into neural pathways, shaped our understanding of neurological processes. In 1914, British physiologist Henry Dale delineated the impact of acetylcholine on nerve cells, unraveling its role as a chemical neurotransmitter, a notion confirmed by German pharmacologist Otto Loewi in 1926. To date, over 200 neurotransmitters have been identified, influencing diverse physiological responses, including our perception of pain.

In 1924, German psychiatrist Hans Berger conducted the inaugural human electroencephalogram (EEG). This breakthrough allowed the recording of brain activity by detecting electrical signals emitted by neurons. Subsequently, British physiologist Edgar Adrian leveraged EEG tests for in-depth explorations of brain function during the 1930s. The year 1952 witnessed significant strides when British scientists Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley published their seminal research on the nervous system of squid, known as the Hodgkin-Huxley model. This work elucidated the generation of electrical signals within nerve cells. Concurrently, the invention of the electron microscope marked the third transformative technological leap, opening new frontiers for exploring the intricacies of neurological structures. The advent of cutting-edge technologies like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) scanning has significantly broadened the scope of applications stemming from Sherrington’s foundational discoveries. Presently, these advanced imaging techniques serve as catalysts for diverse research endeavors encompassing behavior, brain functionality, the assessment of drug efficacy in neurological conditions, advancements in brain surgery techniques, and the exploration of causes and ramifications of diseases like epilepsy and Alzheimer’s.

Alzheimer’s Disease

Dementia, rather than a specific disease, serves as an encompassing term for various conditions linked to diminishing brain function. Manifesting as memory impairment, waning physical and social skills, and diminishing intellectual capabilities, dementia finds its roots in a range of causes. These include chronic alcohol abuse, strokes leading to vascular dementia from damaged brain blood vessels, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease—a fatal brain disorder—and the prevalent Alzheimer’s disease, an irreversible neurodegenerative condition responsible for two-thirds of dementia cases.

Early Onset Of Dementia

While Alzheimer’s disease typically affects the elderly, it also stands as the most common form of early-onset dementia, impacting individuals under 65. Alois Alzheimer, a German psychiatrist, distinguished Alzheimer’s as a unique cause of dementia.

Early Onset Of Dementia

While Alzheimer’s disease typically affects the elderly, it also stands as the most common form of early-onset dementia, impacting individuals under 65. Alois Alzheimer, a German psychiatrist, distinguished Alzheimer’s as a unique cause of dementia.

A Growing Problem

Aligned with increased life expectancy, the incidence of Alzheimer’s and other forms of dementia has surged. Globally, approximately 50 million individuals grapple with dementia, encompassing 5-8% of those aged over 60. Presently, a cure for Alzheimer’s remains elusive, though cholinesterase inhibitor drugs show promise in alleviating symptoms by enhancing acetylcholine levels—a neurotransmitter aiding neuron communication.

The root causes of Alzheimer’s remain elusive. Early-onset cases are believed to result from genetic mutations, while late-onset forms may emerge due to a complex interplay of genetic, lifestyle, and environmental factors, gradually altering the brain over decades. While a healthy lifestyle—marked by a balanced diet, regular exercise, and mental stimulation—may mitigate Alzheimer’s risk, conclusive evidence is still lacking.

Targeted Drug Delivery

At the onset of the 20th century, German scientist Paul Ehrlich pioneered a groundbreaking approach to disease treatment through chemical drugs, coining them “magic bullets.” This revolutionary concept aimed to selectively target disease-causing microbes, or pathogens, with precision while sparing the body from harm. Ehrlich’s inspiration struck during his investigation of synthetic dyes discovered in 1856 by British chemistry student William Henry Perkin. The distinct staining of animal tissues by certain dyes, notably methylene blue, sparked Ehrlich’s fascination, leading him to perceive a connection between dye chemical structures and living cells. Convinced that effective drugs must align with the organisms they target, Ehrlich set forth on a transformative journey.

In 1890, German physiologist Emil von Behring and Japanese physician Shibasaburo Kitasato uncovered that antitoxins generated by the body in response to pathogens could prevent disease. Ehrlich proposed that these antitoxins were chemical receptors or “side-chains,” akin to the structures observed on dyes. He theorized that these side-chains, later identified as antibodies, precisely matched pathogen side-chains like a lock and key. Ehrlich envisioned finding a dye with the perfect side-chain as his magic bullet.

Targeted Drug Delivery

At the onset of the 20th century, German scientist Paul Ehrlich pioneered a groundbreaking approach to disease treatment through chemical drugs, coining them “magic bullets.” This revolutionary concept aimed to selectively target disease-causing microbes, or pathogens, with precision while sparing the body from harm. Ehrlich’s inspiration struck during his investigation of synthetic dyes discovered in 1856 by British chemistry student William Henry Perkin. The distinct staining of animal tissues by certain dyes, notably methylene blue, sparked Ehrlich’s fascination, leading him to perceive a connection between dye chemical structures and living cells. Convinced that effective drugs must align with the organisms they target, Ehrlich set forth on a transformative journey.

In 1890, German physiologist Emil von Behring and Japanese physician Shibasaburo Kitasato uncovered that antitoxins generated by the body in response to pathogens could prevent disease. Ehrlich proposed that these antitoxins were chemical receptors or “side-chains,” akin to the structures observed on dyes. He theorized that these side-chains, later identified as antibodies, precisely matched pathogen side-chains like a lock and key. Ehrlich envisioned finding a dye with the perfect side-chain as his magic bullet.

Targeting Syphilis

In 1905, German scientists Erich Hoffmann and Fritz Schaudinn identified Treponema pallidum, the syphilis-causing bacterium, motivating Ehrlich to make it his primary target. Within the laboratories of the Hoechst chemical company, Ehrlich’s team experimented with a dye derived from an arsenic compound, atoxyl. After numerous iterations, they discovered the ideal match in 1907: arsenic-based arsphenamine, branded “compound 606.” Clinical trials revealed its efficacy, leading to its launch as Salvarsan in 1910. Despite being the first effective syphilis treatment, Salvarsan posed challenges in safe administration and storage. In response, Ehrlich’s laboratory introduced a less toxic version in 1912—Neosalvarsan. Although Ehrlich’s dream of a universal chemical magic bullet for every disease remains unrealized, his immunological breakthrough laid the foundation for chemotherapy, propelling the global pharmaceutical industry and inspiring the creation of numerous life-saving drugs.

Vitamins & Diet

Vitamins, crucial for maintaining health, are essential nutrients encompassing 13 different types, all vital for the human body’s well-being. As the body cannot produce most vitamins, a balanced diet becomes paramount. These micronutrients collaborate with other dietary elements to ensure optimal cellular function. Deficiencies can lead to ailments or fatal diseases, underscoring their pivotal role.

The revelation of vitamins is a relatively recent development. In 1912, Polish-born biochemist Casimir Funk introduced the term “vitamine” when proposing that deficiency diseases, such as rickets and pellagra, result from vital substance deficiencies in the diet. Initially associating them with amines, crucial for cell creation and metabolism, the “e” was later dropped when the true nature of vitamins was unveiled. Funk’s groundbreaking work reshaped dietary understanding and inaugurated a new era in nutritional science.

Vitamins & Diet

Vitamins, crucial for maintaining health, are essential nutrients encompassing 13 different types, all vital for the human body’s well-being. As the body cannot produce most vitamins, a balanced diet becomes paramount. These micronutrients collaborate with other dietary elements to ensure optimal cellular function. Deficiencies can lead to ailments or fatal diseases, underscoring their pivotal role.

The revelation of vitamins is a relatively recent development. In 1912, Polish-born biochemist Casimir Funk introduced the term “vitamine” when proposing that deficiency diseases, such as rickets and pellagra, result from vital substance deficiencies in the diet. Initially associating them with amines, crucial for cell creation and metabolism, the “e” was later dropped when the true nature of vitamins was unveiled. Funk’s groundbreaking work reshaped dietary understanding and inaugurated a new era in nutritional science.

Misunderstood Causes

Before Funk’s work in the early 20th century, the existence of vitamins remained unproven, hindering effective treatments for nutrition-related diseases like rickets. Louis Pasteur’s microbial discoveries in the 1860s had shifted medical focus towards infections, leaving dietary causes largely overlooked. Scurvy was a notable exception, with its cure linked to vitamin C, isolated by Albert Szent-Györgyi in 1931.

Searching For A Cure

Christiaan Eijkman’s quest to cure beriberi in Southeast Asia unveiled the link between diet and the disease. Observing chickens fed polished rice developed beriberi, Eijkman identified the missing element in white rice as the “anti-beriberi factor.” Colleague Adolphe Vorderman’s experiments confirmed its presence in rice husks and kernels. Japanese researcher Umetaro Suzuki’s identification of aberic acid in rice bran as thiamine (vitamin B₁) in 1911 marked a pivotal moment.

Searching For A Cure

Christiaan Eijkman’s quest to cure beriberi in Southeast Asia unveiled the link between diet and the disease. Observing chickens fed polished rice developed beriberi, Eijkman identified the missing element in white rice as the “anti-beriberi factor.” Colleague Adolphe Vorderman’s experiments confirmed its presence in rice husks and kernels. Japanese researcher Umetaro Suzuki’s identification of aberic acid in rice bran as thiamine (vitamin B₁) in 1911 marked a pivotal moment.

Isolating Vitamins

In 1912, British biochemist Frederick Gowland Hopkins proposed the existence of “accessory factors” in certain foods, essential alongside proteins, carbohydrates, fats, and minerals for human health. This revelation laid the foundation for understanding vitamins as indispensable nutritional elements.

Synthesizing Vitamins

The early emphasis on using vitamins to treat nutritional deficiencies evolved into a broader application, with mass production facilitating their incorporation into popular dietary regimens. Whether derived from plant or animal sources or created synthetically, the reproduction of every vitamin became feasible. Vitamin C, traditionally sourced from citrus fruits, found a more cost-effective synthetic route through keto acid. This shift in production methods allowed for broader accessibility and affordability.

Advancements in understanding how the body absorbs vitamins prompted innovations in supplement formulation. While vitamins can be naturally sourced from plants or animals, additives are often integrated into synthetic vitamin pills to enhance their absorption. This dual approach, combining natural elements with synthesized forms, optimizes the effectiveness of vitamin supplements.

Bacteriophages & Phage Therapy

Bacteriophages, or phages, constitute a vast viral army with an estimated count of 10 million trillion trillion, surpassing bacteria in numbers. The exploration of these bacterial invaders began in 1915 when British microbiologist Frederick William Twort encountered transparent patches of deceased bacteria during his quest to culture the vaccinia virus for smallpox vaccine development.

Dead Patches

In 1917, French-Canadian microbiologist Félix d’Hérelle made a parallel discovery to Twort while cultivating a bacillus in Tunisia. Recognizing the potential, d’Hérelle coined the term “bacteriophage” and envisioned their application in treating bacterial diseases, paving the way for phage therapy.

Miracle Cure

Initially shrouded in mystery, the true nature of bacteriophages puzzled scientists. D’Hérelle considered them microbes, while others leaned towards a chemical identity. Despite the uncertainty, d’Hérelle glimpsed their medical promise. His groundbreaking self-experimentation in 1919, testing bacteriophages on dysentery, marked the beginning of phage therapy’s potential. Swift success followed as he effectively treated dysentery patients in Paris, addressed a cholera epidemic in India, and combated plague in Indochina.

Phages Rediscovered

In the late 1930s, a profound comprehension of the vast biological importance of bacteriophages emerged. Guided by a group of scientists at Cold Spring Harbor in the US, phages took center stage in unraveling the structure of DNA. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase’s pioneering work in 1952, utilizing phages, definitively established DNA as life’s genetic material.

Researchers have uncovered two intricate methods through which phages seize control of bacterial cells. In both scenarios, the phage’s tail fibers initiate attachment to the cell wall, piercing it to deliver their double-stranded DNA genome. In the “lytic” cycle, the phage harnesses the cell’s resources for relentless replication until the cell ruptures. Alternatively, the “lysogenic” cycle sees dormant DNA within the cell, replicating during host cell division without causing significant harm.

Amidst escalating bacterial resistance to antibiotics, a resurgence of interest in phage therapy has emerged, marked by numerous ongoing trials. Leveraging the rapid replication rate and precise targeting capabilities of phages, this therapeutic approach holds promise. Beyond combating bacterial infections, phages show potential for pathogen detection and the creation of antibodies combating ailments like rheumatism and gastrointestinal disorders.

Attenuated Vaccines

In the wake of Louis Pasteur’s triumphs in the 1880s with anthrax and rabies vaccines, fervent interest in vaccination surged. Scientists worldwide embarked on a quest for new vaccines, envisioning a future where diseases could be eradicated through vaccination.

The undertaking, however, proved more arduous and perilous than anticipated. Countless scientists faced challenges and dangers, with both staggering losses and extraordinary heroism exhibited. Innovations were imperative to create and enhance vaccines, ultimately yielding breakthroughs against cholera, diphtheria, tetanus, whooping cough, and bubonic plague. Notably, French scientists Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin achieved a milestone in 1921 by developing the BCG vaccine, a potent defense against tuberculosis.

New Methods

In the 1880s, the approach to vaccine development involved using pathogens or their secreted toxins. Edward Jenner utilized the less hazardous cowpox for his smallpox vaccine, while Pasteur weakened pathogens for his anthrax vaccine. The challenge lay in attenuating the pathogen sufficiently to prevent illness while retaining potency for immune activation. In 1888, French bacteriologist Émile Roux and Alexandre Yersin discovered that diphtheria bacteria inflicted harm by secreting a toxin. In 1890, Emil von Behring and Shibasaburo Kitasato demonstrated animal experiments proving immunity to diphtheria through antitoxin development. This paved the way for “serotherapy,” an effective diphtheria treatment saving lives before the vaccine’s 1920s emergence.

Attenuated Vaccines

In the wake of Louis Pasteur’s triumphs in the 1880s with anthrax and rabies vaccines, fervent interest in vaccination surged. Scientists worldwide embarked on a quest for new vaccines, envisioning a future where diseases could be eradicated through vaccination.

The undertaking, however, proved more arduous and perilous than anticipated. Countless scientists faced challenges and dangers, with both staggering losses and extraordinary heroism exhibited. Innovations were imperative to create and enhance vaccines, ultimately yielding breakthroughs against cholera, diphtheria, tetanus, whooping cough, and bubonic plague. Notably, French scientists Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin achieved a milestone in 1921 by developing the BCG vaccine, a potent defense against tuberculosis.

New Methods

In the 1880s, the approach to vaccine development involved using pathogens or their secreted toxins. Edward Jenner utilized the less hazardous cowpox for his smallpox vaccine, while Pasteur weakened pathogens for his anthrax vaccine. The challenge lay in attenuating the pathogen sufficiently to prevent illness while retaining potency for immune activation. In 1888, French bacteriologist Émile Roux and Alexandre Yersin discovered that diphtheria bacteria inflicted harm by secreting a toxin. In 1890, Emil von Behring and Shibasaburo Kitasato demonstrated animal experiments proving immunity to diphtheria through antitoxin development. This paved the way for “serotherapy,” an effective diphtheria treatment saving lives before the vaccine’s 1920s emergence.

Killed Vaccines

Ukrainian bacteriologist Waldemar Haffkine led the quest for a cholera vaccine. Employing a distinctive method involving pathogen passage through animals, Haffkine aimed not to weaken but to boost virulence, ensuring immune system provocation. Boiling the pathogen to render it harmless, Haffkine courageously tested the vaccine on himself in 1892. Initially met with skepticism, Haffkine’s vaccine gained credibility after a bold demonstration by reporter Aubrey Stanhope in a cholera epidemic. Stanhope, injected with the vaccine, immersed himself in the outbreak in Hamburg, emerging unscathed. Haffkine’s subsequent efforts in India, despite setbacks, saved hundreds of thousands of lives, marking a pivotal chapter in vaccine history.

Creating BCG

A pivotal breakthrough in the quest for innovative vaccines unfolded with the creation of the Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccine for tuberculosis (TB) by Albert Calmette and Camille Guérin. In the 1890s, researchers, inspired by Jenner’s smallpox vaccine, turned to cattle for a TB solution. Unfortunately, bovine tuberculosis proved too potent for human use, leading to a disastrous trial in Italy. Conversely, TB bacteria, when killed by boiling or chemical means, failed to provoke the human immune system. Recognizing the need for a live but weakened germ, Calmette and Guérin embarked on a meticulous journey.

In 1908, they initiated the cultivation of Mycobacterium bovis (bovine TB) from an infected cow’s milk in their laboratory. Glycerine and potatoes served as the medium, with ox bile added to prevent germ clumping. Every three weeks, the bacteria underwent removal and commenced another culture. Through successive cultures, the bacteria’s virulence diminished. Despite the gradual pace, after five years, the pair was prepared to test their vaccine on cows. The trials faced interruption due to World War I, yet the culturing persisted through the wartime upheaval. This relentless dedication paved the way for the eventual success of the BCG vaccine, a significant milestone in the fight against tuberculosis.

The Search Goes On

By 1930, medical pioneers had harnessed three primary approaches to vaccine development: utilizing a live, attenuated form of the pathogen (as seen in smallpox and BCG vaccines); employing killed organisms (notable in typhoid, cholera, plague, and whooping cough vaccines); and using neutralized toxins, or toxoids (exemplified by diphtheria and tetanus vaccines). While vaccination wasn’t infallible, it played a pivotal role in saving hundreds of millions of lives, gradually relegating major diseases to the recesses of memory in developed nations. Since the mid-1980s, the landscape of vaccine creation has evolved with the advent of genetic engineering, giving rise to subunit and conjugate vaccines combating diseases like human papillomavirus (HPV) and hepatitis. A cutting-edge frontier now involves DNA vaccines, where a brief DNA sequence containing the antigenic information of a pathogen triggers an immune response. As exemplified by the recent COVID-19 pandemic, the relentless pursuit of novel vaccines remains as crucial today as it has ever been.

Diabetes & Its Treatments

In 1920, Frederick Banting unraveled a centuries-old medical enigma, deciphering the cause of diabetes and bringing clarity to a mystery that had confounded physicians throughout history. The earliest documented reference to a condition resembling diabetes—marked by frequent urination—can be traced back to ancient Egypt’s Ebers papyrus, penned around 1550 BCE.

During the Golden Age of Islamic medicine in the 9-11th centuries CE, more detailed accounts of diabetes emerged. Pioneers like Ibn Sina chronicled symptoms such as sweet urine, abnormal appetite, gangrene, and sexual dysfunction. Diagnosis often involved scrutinizing the color, odor, and taste of urine. In 1776, British physician Matthew Dobson linked the sweet taste of urine to excess sugar (glucose), marking an early recognition of two diabetes types: type 1 and type 2.

Diabetes & Its Treatments

In 1920, Frederick Banting unraveled a centuries-old medical enigma, deciphering the cause of diabetes and bringing clarity to a mystery that had confounded physicians throughout history. The earliest documented reference to a condition resembling diabetes—marked by frequent urination—can be traced back to ancient Egypt’s Ebers papyrus, penned around 1550 BCE.

During the Golden Age of Islamic medicine in the 9-11th centuries CE, more detailed accounts of diabetes emerged. Pioneers like Ibn Sina chronicled symptoms such as sweet urine, abnormal appetite, gangrene, and sexual dysfunction. Diagnosis often involved scrutinizing the color, odor, and taste of urine. In 1776, British physician Matthew Dobson linked the sweet taste of urine to excess sugar (glucose), marking an early recognition of two diabetes types: type 1 and type 2.

Role Of Pancreas

The pivotal role of the pancreas in diabetes unfolded in the mid-19th century. French chemist and physician Apollinaire Bouchardat pioneered diabetes treatments, advocating for dietary changes—reducing starch and sugar—and highlighting the significance of exercise. Bouchardat, among the first to propose a pancreas connection to diabetes, found support through experiments on dogs. In 1889, German physicians Joseph von Mering and Oskar Minkowski demonstrated diabetes symptoms in dogs post-pancreas removal, cementing the pancreas’s pivotal role in the diabetes narrative.

Role Of Pancreas

The pivotal role of the pancreas in diabetes unfolded in the mid-19th century. French chemist and physician Apollinaire Bouchardat pioneered diabetes treatments, advocating for dietary changes—reducing starch and sugar—and highlighting the significance of exercise. Bouchardat, among the first to propose a pancreas connection to diabetes, found support through experiments on dogs. In 1889, German physicians Joseph von Mering and Oskar Minkowski demonstrated diabetes symptoms in dogs post-pancreas removal, cementing the pancreas’s pivotal role in the diabetes narrative.

The Discovery Of Insulin

In May 1921, Banting and Best embarked on groundbreaking experiments with dogs. They implemented two distinct procedures—removing the pancreas entirely from some dogs and ligating the pancreatic duct in others. As anticipated, dogs without a pancreas developed diabetes, while those with a tied duct remained unaffected. Despite the degeneration of pancreatic cells responsible for digestive secretions in duct-tied dogs, the islets of Langerhans, crucial for averting diabetes, remained unharmed. The duo aimed to extract and isolate these pivotal secretions, yet maintaining the dogs for sufficient testing proved challenging. Amid numerous setbacks that tragically led to the demise of several dogs, Banting and Best persisted in their quest.

Human Testing

As 1921 drew to a close, Macleod enlisted the expertise of biochemist James Collip to refine Banting and Best’s pancreatic extract for clinical trials in humans. On January 11, 1922, a life-changing moment unfolded at Toronto General Hospital as 14-year-old Leonard Thompson, on the brink of death due to diabetes, became the first recipient of the extract. The initial attempt yielded unsatisfactory results, prompting a subsequent trial with a purer extract around two weeks later. This time, the outcome was remarkable—Thompson’s blood sugar normalized, and his debilitating symptoms diminished.

In May 1922, Macleod presented a groundbreaking paper titled “The Effects Produced on Diabetes by Extracts of Pancreas” at the Association of American Physicians’ annual conference, marking the inaugural use of the term “insulin.” Despite the success, the achievement was clouded by internal disputes. Banting claimed credit for the breakthrough, emphasizing his role and the pivotal experiments conducted with Best. Others argued that Macleod and Collip played indispensable roles. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1923 was awarded jointly to Banting and Macleod, with Banting sharing his prize money with Best and Macleod doing the same with Collip.

Human Testing

As 1921 drew to a close, Macleod enlisted the expertise of biochemist James Collip to refine Banting and Best’s pancreatic extract for clinical trials in humans. On January 11, 1922, a life-changing moment unfolded at Toronto General Hospital as 14-year-old Leonard Thompson, on the brink of death due to diabetes, became the first recipient of the extract. The initial attempt yielded unsatisfactory results, prompting a subsequent trial with a purer extract around two weeks later. This time, the outcome was remarkable—Thompson’s blood sugar normalized, and his debilitating symptoms diminished.

In May 1922, Macleod presented a groundbreaking paper titled “The Effects Produced on Diabetes by Extracts of Pancreas” at the Association of American Physicians’ annual conference, marking the inaugural use of the term “insulin.” Despite the success, the achievement was clouded by internal disputes. Banting claimed credit for the breakthrough, emphasizing his role and the pivotal experiments conducted with Best. Others argued that Macleod and Collip played indispensable roles. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for 1923 was awarded jointly to Banting and Macleod, with Banting sharing his prize money with Best and Macleod doing the same with Collip.

Further Breakthroughs

In the ensuing decades, relentless research led to significant refinements in both the production and administration of insulin. A pivotal breakthrough occurred in the 1950s when scientists unraveled the intricate chemical structure of insulin, followed by pinpointing the precise location of the insulin gene within human DNA.

A monumental leap took place in 1977 when researchers successfully integrated a rat insulin gene into a bacterium’s DNA, prompting the bacterium to synthesize rat insulin. Building upon this success, the groundbreaking achievement of producing human insulin through genetically engineered Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria was realized by 1978. Introduced to the market as Humulin by Eli Lilly in 1982, this marked the inception of the first genetically engineered human medication. Today, the predominant source of insulin for individuals with diabetes stems from this innovative genetic engineering approach.

Birth Control

American nurse and feminist Margaret Sanger passionately championed birth control as a fundamental right for women. Immersed in the impoverished slums of New York’s Lower East Side, she witnessed the profound impact of unwanted pregnancies on the area’s impoverished immigrants. Sanger frequently responded to distressing calls from women who had undergone perilous backstreet abortions, revealing the dire consequences of untrained procedures with non-sterilized instruments. Recognizing the lack of reproductive education among these women, Sanger was spurred to share the “secret” of family planning.

Legal Obstacles

The restrictive Comstock Act of 1873 labeled contraceptives and related literature as “obscene” and prohibited their distribution. Undeterred, Sanger defied this legislation, asserting that every woman had the right to manage her pregnancies and that contraception was pivotal in breaking the cycle of female poverty. With no means of controlling family size, women would perpetually grapple with financial struggles and educational limitations, leading to a rise in dangerous illegal abortions.

In 1914, Sanger initiated The Woman Rebel, a feminist publication advocating universal contraceptive access and coining the term “birth control.” Legal repercussions forced Sanger to flee to the UK, only to return a year later. Public sympathy, following the tragic death of Sanger’s daughter, led to the dismissal of charges against her.

In 1916, Sanger faced a 30-day jail sentence for establishing a birth control clinic in Brooklyn. Her appeal prompted a court ruling allowing physicians to prescribe contraceptives for medical reasons. Capitalizing on this legal opening, Sanger, in 1923, inaugurated the Birth Control Clinical Research Bureau, exclusively staffed by female doctors. This organization evolved into Planned Parenthood Federation of America, serving as Sanger’s conduit for introducing birth control to the masses over the next three decades.

Hard Won Reform

Sanger relentlessly advocated for legislative changes, securing victories such as the 1936 legalization of family doctors prescribing contraceptives in New York, Connecticut, and Vermont. In a landmark move in 1971, the Comstock Act expunged references to contraception. By then, the widely available oral contraceptive, known as the Pill, marked a significant milestone. Spearheading its development, Sanger, supported by heiress Katharine McCormick and biologist Gregory Pincus, achieved the Pill’s approval by the US government in 1960, culminating in the realization of Sanger’s vision for American women to take charge of their fertility.

Electroencephalography

In 1935, British neurophysiologist William Grey Walter achieved a groundbreaking feat by diagnosing a patient’s brain tumor using an electroencephalogram (EEG). While German neuropsychiatrist Hans Berger had utilized EEG in the 1920s, Walter’s innovations refined the technology, allowing for the detection of a spectrum of brain waves and transforming EEG into a powerful diagnostic tool. Within the intricate network of the brain’s billions of neurons, electrical impulses are generated at synapses, the junctions where neurons communicate. Though individual synapse impulses are too minuscule for detection, the collective firing of thousands of neurons creates an electric field measurable by electrodes.

Different Wave Bands

Conducting experiments, Walter strategically placed electrodes around patients’ heads to map the underlying electrical activity of their brains. His EEG machines discerned various brain signals representing diverse states of consciousness, ranging from high-frequency waves to low-frequency delta waves. Walter’s pivotal discovery unveiled a correlation between disrupted delta waves and the presence of brain tumors and epileptic activity. While aspects of brain electrical impulses remain enigmatic, neurophysiologists now recognize five primary frequency bands. Delta waves dominate during deep sleep, theta waves manifest during relaxed wakefulness or daydreaming, and alpha waves emerge during targeted periods of rest. EEG, being noninvasive and entirely safe, stands out as a unique tool capable of measuring rapid changes in brain electrical activity at a remarkable temporal resolution of one millisecond or less.

Scanning Alternatives

Though other noninvasive tools like positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) exist, they don’t directly measure electrical activity. PET gauges metabolic activity, while fMRI tracks blood flow changes. However, only EEG can capture the swift fluctuations in electrical activity, despite its limitation in precisely pinpointing the sources of deep-seated brain electrical activity due to the placement of scalp electrodes.

Scanning Alternatives

Though other noninvasive tools like positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) exist, they don’t directly measure electrical activity. PET gauges metabolic activity, while fMRI tracks blood flow changes. However, only EEG can capture the swift fluctuations in electrical activity, despite its limitation in precisely pinpointing the sources of deep-seated brain electrical activity due to the placement of scalp electrodes.

Cancer Screening

In the 1950s, the US initiated the first mass screening program, targeting cervical cancer—the fourth most prevalent cancer in women. Utilizing the smear test introduced by George Papanicolaou in 1943, this groundbreaking approach aimed at detecting cell abnormalities early, crucial for preventing the progression to full-blown cancer. Papanicolaou’s “Pap smear” test, refining the identification of precancerous lesions, significantly reduced mortality, setting the stage for broader cancer screening initiatives.

Succesful Screening

Following the triumph of cervical cancer screening, tests for other prevalent cancers emerged. By the late 1960s, screening methods were developed for breast and colorectal cancers. Mammograms became a standard procedure for breast cancer, utilizing X-ray technology to detect tumors imperceptible through touch. Advances like 3D digital imaging since 2000 have enhanced breast tissue analysis. Colorectal cancer, highly treatable if identified early, witnessed success through exploratory procedures like colonoscopy, sigmoidoscopy, and fecal occult blood testing (FOBT), potentially preventing 60% of related deaths.

In contrast, screening for prostate cancer, the second most common cancer in men, presented challenges. The prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test, introduced in the 1990s, yielded above-average blood levels indicating potential cancer presence. However, inconclusive evidence on mortality rate reduction and concerns over false-positive results led several countries to abandon PSA testing.

Succesful Screening

Following the triumph of cervical cancer screening, tests for other prevalent cancers emerged. By the late 1960s, screening methods were developed for breast and colorectal cancers. Mammograms became a standard procedure for breast cancer, utilizing X-ray technology to detect tumors imperceptible through touch. Advances like 3D digital imaging since 2000 have enhanced breast tissue analysis. Colorectal cancer, highly treatable if identified early, witnessed success through exploratory procedures like colonoscopy, sigmoidoscopy, and fecal occult blood testing (FOBT), potentially preventing 60% of related deaths.

In contrast, screening for prostate cancer, the second most common cancer in men, presented challenges. The prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test, introduced in the 1990s, yielded above-average blood levels indicating potential cancer presence. However, inconclusive evidence on mortality rate reduction and concerns over false-positive results led several countries to abandon PSA testing.

Mixed Results

The efficacy of cancer screening programs hinges on balancing benefits against costs and risks, such as false-positive outcomes. Despite successes, ongoing research seeks to refine existing tests and explore new screening avenues, emphasizing the importance of evidence-based policies for successful cancer screening.